Early history

The importance of Scotland’s folk traditions can sometimes tend to foreground the orally-based over the written within surveys of its early literature, whether in Scots or Gaelic. Manuscripts survive in both languages of poetic works dating from at least the 14th century, but their level of stylistic and rhetorical sophistication, together with the existence of much older fragments, clearly points to an already well-developed indigenous literary culture by this period.
Early Scots literature
Reinforcing such arguments, in a Lowland Scots context, is the fact that literature’s first 'golden age' is generally dated from around 1425-1550. Following on from such early landmarks as
John Barbour’s
The Bruce (c 1376), an epic describing the wars of independence against England, and the heavily Chaucer-influenced
The Kingis Quair (c 1425), widely attributed to James I, this was the era of the 'Makars', a group of writers who significantly advanced the status and development of Scots as a literary language. Among their key achievements were
Gavin Douglas’s
Eneados, a Scots version of Virgil’s
Aeneid (one of the earliest translations of a major classical text into any European vernacular);
Robert Henryson’s reworking of Aesop’s fables, and his
Testament of Cresseid;
William Dunbar’s colloquial virtuosity in such poems as the
Tretis of the Tua Mariit Wemen and the Wedo ('Treatise of the Two Married Women and the Widow'), and
Sir David Lyndsay’s political morality play
Ane Satyre of the Thrie Estaitis, regarded as the founding flagship of Scottish drama.

Important early prose works in Scots include John Ireland’s philosophical manual for the young James IV,
The Meroure of Wysdome (c 1490), and the Asloan manuscript (c 1515), an anthology of shorter prose compositions incorporating history, geography, morality, translation and scripture. Translation, mainly from Latin and French originals, remained a central strand of prose literature during both the Renaissance and Reformation periods, while a French source was also the key influence on
The Complaynt of Scotland (c 1550), a bold political critique of uncertain authorship, narrated by 'Dame Scotia' and her three metaphorical sons. A teenage James VI contributed
Ane Schort Treatise Conteining Some Reulis and Cautelis to be observit and eschewit in Scottis Poesie (c.1584), the first critical work on Scottish poetry. With the advent of the Reformation, from 1560 on, religious and doctrinal matters increasingly became the dominant theme for Scottish writers, led by the works of John Knox, such as his
First and
Second Book of Discipline (c 1561/1578).
Early Gaelic literature
Within the ancient clan-based social structure of the highlands and islands, and its hereditary tradition of professional bards attached to each chief’s household, Gaelic was one of the earliest written vernacular languages in Europe.

Gaelic texts have been identified dating back to the 6th or 7th centuries, although the oldest reliably sourced manuscript was produced around 1310. Poetry – closely allied to music and song – was by far the dominant medium until into the 18th century, with earlier works largely written in a learned, semi-formal idiom now known as Classical Common Gaelic. As the clan system broke down, and 'amateur' (though usually noble) poets began to enter the field, this was gradually infiltrated, and eventually superseded, by a greater diversity of styles, metres and vernacular language, encompassing courtly love poetry, satire, heroic ballads, bawdry, pastoral and religious verse, in addition to the time-honoured bardic fare of praise-poetry, elegies and historical sagas. As with Scots, however, a strong oral component has always run parallel to, and exerted considerable influence on, the written literature’s development, with Gaelic culture’s rich ballad tradition being a key carrier and conserver of ancient verse compositions.